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Based on the Chow intersection theory of W.~Fulton and A.~Vistoli, the theory of virtual fundamental class \\([X]^{\\mathrm{vir}}\\) is introduced by J.~Li-G.~Tian and K.~Behrend-B.~Fantechi, in order to provide an algebro-geometric theory of Gromov-Witten invariants. The three most important techniques for handling the virtual fundamental classes are:  (i) the virtual pullback formula \\(f^! [X]^{\\mathrm{vir}} = [Y]^{\\mathrm{vir}}\\);  (ii) the virtual torus localization formula \\([X]^{\\mathrm{vir}} = \\iota_*\\big ({[X^T]^{\\mathrm{vir}}}/{e(N^{\\mathrm{vir}})}\\big)\\) where \\(X^T\\) is the fixed locus of a torus-\\(T\\) action on \\(X\\), \\(\\iota: X^T \\to T\\) is the inclusion map, and \\(N^{\\mathrm{vir}}\\) is the virtual normal bundle of \\(X^T\\);  (iii) the cosection localization principle \\(\\iota_*[X]^{\\mathrm{vir}}_{\\mathrm{loc}}=[X]^{\\mathrm{vir}}\\) where \\([X]^{\\mathrm{vir}}_{\\mathrm{loc}}\\) is the localized virtual fundamental class and \\(\\iota\\) is the inclusion map of the degeneracy locus. In this paper, the authors extract key properties from the work of W.~Fulton and codify the notion of an intersection theory for schemes and stacks. When perfect obstruction theories are present, virtual fundamental classes in these intersection theories are constructed. Moreover, the virtual pullback formula, the virtual torus localization formula and cosection localization principle are proved for these virtual fundamental classes.  Section~2 codifies the notion of an intersection theory for schemes and stacks, and discusses useful properties as well as examples. Section~3 introduces the limit intersection theory of stacks from an intersection theory of schemes, and shows that in the category of algebraic stacks which admit good systems of approximations, the limit theory is a weak intersection theory. For all intersection theories of schemes and for their limit intersection theories, the authors prove the virtual pullback formula, the cosection localization principle and the virtual torus localization formula in Section~4, Section~5 and Section~6 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