Diophantine equations \(x^2 -Dy^2 =-1, \pm 2,\) odd graphs, and their applications (Q2566182)

The use of graph theoretical language in connection with the solvability of the negative Pell equation \(x^2 - dy^2 = -1\) seems to go back to \textit{J. C. Lagarias} [J. Number Theory 12, 191--196 (1980; Zbl 0438.12001)]: we can attach a graph to \(d\) by taking the prime factors \(d_i\) of \(d\) as vertices and connecting \(d_i\) and \(d_j\) by an edge if \((d_i/d_j) = -1\). Since the negative Pell equation can only be solvable if all prime factors of \(d\) are sums of two squares, we have \((d_i/d_j) = (d_j/d_i)\), and the associated graph is nondirected. The fact that the negative Pell equation has a solution if the associated graph is odd then contains several classical solvability results as special cases. In this article, the notion of an odd graph is extended to directed graphs, and the main result is that if \(d \equiv 1, 2 \bmod 4\), \(d \equiv 3 \bmod 8\) or \(d \equiv 7 \bmod 8\), then the equation \(x^2 - dy^2 = -1\), \(-2\) or \(+2\) is solvable if the associated graph is odd. Finally, applications to the level (stufe) of rings of integers in real quadratic number fields are given.