Thermodynamics with internal variables. I: General concepts. II: Applications (Q1338007)

The first part of this review replaces the concept of internal variables of state in the general context of non-equilibrium thermodynamics. This offers the slightest deviation from the classical theory of irreversible processes (TIP) while exhibiting a flexibility and versatility that other attempts at generalizing TIP cannot sustain. Here the basic working hypotheses on which the application of internal-variable theory relies, are specified. The use of TIP, after introduction of the appropriate axiom of local equilibrium state, or of a pseudopotential of dissipation is emphasized. The role of internal state variables in describing microstructures and the current misunderstanding with internal degrees of freedom are clarified. The second part presents and discusses the most spectacular and successful applications of the irreversible thermodynamics with internal variables. These include viscosity in both fluids and solids (in the former case, in complex fluids and structurally complex flows), viscoplasticity and rate-independent plasticity in small and finite strains, damage and cyclic plasticity, electric and magnetic relaxation, magnetic and electric hysteresis, normal and semi-conduction, superconductivity of deformable solids, and ferrofluids.