Finding periodic solutions without finding eigenvalues (Q1636931)

The main aim of this paper is to present an approach to find the periodic solutions of equation \[ x(k)=a_1x(k-1)+a_2x(k-2)+\cdots+a_nx(k-n),\quad\left(k\in\mathbb N\cup\left\{0\right\}\right)\tag{1} \] when all the coefficients \(a_i\), \(i=1,\dots,n\), are rational. If \(n\) is small enough, the author looks also for solutions of a particular period \(r\). Furthermore, the method is easy to carry out by hand: it amounts to check a small list of potential eigenvectors rather than potential eigenvalues, and the list depends only on \(n\) and \(r\). As a consequence of the main result (Theorem 4.4 of the paper) the following statements follow easily: 1) Suppose that \(a,b,c\in\mathbb Q\) are rational. The third-order equation \[ x(k)=ax(k-1)+bx(k-2)+cx(k-3) \] has nontrivial periodic solutions if and only if at least one of the following holds: \((1,1,1)^T\in\mathbb C^3\) is a \(1\)-periodic point; \((1,-1,1)^T\in\mathbb C^3\) is a \(2\)-periodic point; \((0, 1,-1)^T\in\mathbb C^3\) is a \(3\)-periodic point; \((0,1,0)^T\in\mathbb C^3\) is a \(4\)-periodic point; \((0,1,1)^T\in\mathbb C^3\) is a \(6\)-periodic point. 2) Suppose that equation (1) has rational coefficients and that \(n>2\) is prime. Then equation (1) has a periodic solution of minimal period \(n\) if and only if \((0,1,-1,1,\dots,(-1)^n)^T\in\mathbb C^n\) is an \(n\)-periodic point for equation (1). 3) Suppose that equation (1) has rational coefficients, and that \(r\) is prime. In the case \(r>n+1\), equation (1) has no solution of minimal period \(r\).