Quantum mechanics for pedestrians 2. Applications and extensions (Q1787159)

The book is organized in 14 chapters, 15--28 (pp. 3--233), 22 appendices (pp. 235--576), recommended further readings, and a subject index. The subject index of volume 1 [Zbl 1445.81001] is added. Each chapter begins with an abstract and ends with a number of suitable exercises. Chapter 15 considers piecewise constant potentials in one dimension. After noting the solutions of the stationary Schrödinger equation with a constant potential \(V_i\) for \(E>V_i\) and \(E<V_i\) the conditions for their matching at a potential step from \(V_1<E\) to \(V_2>E\) are explained. The potential step from 0 to \(V_0\) is extensively treated. In the case \(E<V_0\) so called partial waves, transmission and reflection coefficients, arise. For the finite potential well the negative and positive energy solutions are derived, and the limit of growing potential strength is considered. The tunnel effect for a potential well is considered. Eventually, wave packets are introduced. Angular momenta are the concern of Chapter 16. It begins introducing the orbital angular momentum and derives the commutation relations of its components which commute with the square of it. For vector operators \textbf{J} with components \(J_x, J_y, J_z\) fulfilling these relations the possible spectra are derived algebraically. Matrix representations in the eigenbasis of a component may be convenient and generally used. The case \(j=\frac{1}{2}\) is exemplified. Spherical coordinates are used for integer values of \(j\). The use of Clebsch-Gordan coefficients for the addition of angular momenta are mentioned. The addition of spin and orbital angular momenta is explicitly considered. The hydrogen atom is the topic of Chapter 17. The center of mass system for two bodies interacting by a potential only depending on their relative distance is explained. The stationary Schrödinger equation in case that one body carries the overwhelming mass is nearly that of a central potential. The spectral problem in spherical coordinates incorporating the centrifugal force by the potential depending on the quantum number of the orbital angular momentum is formulated. The radial equation is extensively discussed and solved to give series of negative eigenvalues of the hydrogen atom.thereby the concepts of essential and accidental degeneration are introduced. The meaning of a complete system of observables w. r. t. the spectrum is reviewed. Eventually, it is remarked that the preceding results are derived from a simplifying model which must be refined occasionally. The importance of such models in research is emphasised. Chapter 18 deals with the harmonic oscillator. After pointing at its applicability in many different problems in physics the Hamilton operator \(H\) is established. Then \(H\) is written in the algebraic form in terms of creation and annihilation operators. Their properties including the number operator are explicated, and the spectrum of \(H\) is derived algebraically. The eigenfunctions in the position representation are determined. Chapter 19 introduces to the stationary perturbation theory. For discrete spectra and a sufficiently small perturbation the first order corrections of energy values and respective eigenfunctions are explicitly calculated in the non-degenerate case. How to do it in case of degeneration is sketched. As an example the fine structure of the hydrogen spectrum is calculated. To that end, the Pauli Hamilton is considered as a perturbation of the Schrödinger one. Clearly, the Pauli equation is a non-relativistic approximation to the Dirac equation. So the result is compared with that of a relativistic treatment. Here also the Lamb shift is mentioned. Entanglement, EPR, and Bell is the topic of Chapter 20. Product states contrast entangled states in that quantum measurements on one part of the system do not influence the state of the other, therefore they are also called separable. A lucid criterion for separability for bipartite pure states is given in the simplest case: \(\mathbb{C}^2\otimes\mathbb{C}^2\) such as polarizations of two photons. Quantum correlations are demonstrated considering a Bell state. The non-locality of quantum mechanics is obvious. Einstein's word ``spooky action'' is mentioned as well as the fact, that there are bases consisting in Bell states in \(\mathbb{C}^2\otimes\mathbb{C}^2\). The absurdity of entanglement in classical physics is demonstrated by Schrödinger's cat paradoxon. Bertlmann's socks exemplify whether a correlation is quantum or classical. The EPR thought experiment, A. Einstein's conclusion on ``lacking elements of reality'' in quantum theory, his incompleteness argument, and N. Bohr's answer are discussed. Bell's inequality discerns classical from quantum correlations in that it holds true for classical but is violated for quantum correlations. A simple form of it is derived and applied to a EPR setting with polarized photons. Its violation is explicitly shown for a Bell state of the two photons. A measurement on one part of a bipartite system in an entangled state causes an immediate state change of the other independent of the distance in between the parts. But this fact cannot be used for to achieve a superluminal transfer of information. In Chapter 21 symmetries and conservation laws are considered. After designating kinds and origins of symmetries continuous symmetry transformations are described. Stone's theorem is mentioned and the representation of one-parameter groups or subgroups by their infinitesimal generators which commute in case of symmetry with the Hamiltonian is given. So continuous symmetries and conserved quantities are connected. Time and space translations as well as rotations are considered until special Galilean transformation are mentioned. Examples of discrete symmetries are space inversion (parity), and time inversion. The concepts of axial (pseudo) and polar vectors are explained in connection with parity. Time inversion is represented by an anti-unitary operator, the second possibility in Wigner's theorem. That this must be such is explicated by two different methods. Density operators are introduced in Chapter 22. Instead by unit vectors pure quantum states may be represented by the respective projection operator expressing the purity of that state. After defining the trace of an operator statistical mixtures of pure states are shown to be represented by positive operators \(\rho\) of unit trace, \(\mathrm{tr}(\rho)=1\). In general \(\mathrm{tr}(\rho^2)\leq 1\), equality holds true only for \(\rho\) being a pure state. The expectation value of an observable \(A\) is \(<A>=\mathrm{tr}(\rho A)\). For the parts of bipartite systems the reduced density operators are given by the partial traces. A partial trace of a pure entangled state is never pure. Chapter 23 is endowed to the exchange symmetries of identical particles. The construction of permutations by products of transpositions is explained. As operators on \(\mathcal{H}^{\otimes N}\) they can only have eigenvalues \(+1\) or \(-1\). Totally symmetric as well as totally antisymmetric elements of \(\mathcal{H}^{\otimes N}\) are introduced which form two mutual orthogonal closed subspaces, \(\mathcal{H}^{(+)}\) and \(\mathcal{H}^{(-)}\), the eigenspaces of \(+1\) or \(-1\) of the transposition operators. It is stated without proof that systems consisting in identical particles of integer spin, called bosons, have to be described in \(\mathcal{H}^{(+)}\), and on case of half integer spin. called fermions, in \(\mathcal{H}^{(-)}\). In the fermionic case it follows that for any pair of components at least one quantum number must be different, otherwise the state function would vanish. This is the important Pauli principle. The Slater determinant is mentioned. A treatment of the helium atom shows how the Pauli principle, the addition of angular momenta, and perturbation theory apply to solve a concrete problem. Starting with two electrons in the central potential of the nucleus without mutual interaction of the electrons the atom is called either \textit{orthohelium} in case the spins add to a triplet state (\(S=1\)) or \textit{parahelium} in case of the singlet state (\(S=0\)). For to achieve better agreement of the energy levels with experiments perturbation theory is applied regarding the electron-electron interaction. Even better results are obtained by the Ritz method. Eventually, the question is discussed why we do not need to include all identical particles of the universe into the exchange symmetry. To that end overlaps of wave functions are considered with the result that errors are negligible in practice. Decoherence is the topic of Chapter 24. A simple demonstration is given for ideal measurements where the interaction of the object with the apparatus results in a state entangling the components of the object state with the pointer positions which must decohere since superpositions of macroscopic properties are impossible. In the ideal case the result is a mixed state with probabilities according to the Born rule. It is shown how the influence of the environment may falsify these probabilities. On the other hand the environment induces the transfer of quantum correlations to classical ones. Several aspects of the action of the environment are explicated until it is described by a complete positive linear trace preserving mapping. Decoherence free subspaces used in information processing are alluded to. A historical note mentions that decoherence has been ignored until H. Dieter Zeh and others drew attention to it in the seventies of the latter century. In Chapter 25 potential scattering is considered. After introducing the scattering cross section in classical mechanics the derivation of the differential cross section in quantum mechanics as well as the scattering amplitude for spherical symmetric potentials is given. It follows the treatment by partial waves. Eventually, the Born approximation is explained. Chapter 26 gives an insight to wuantum information. The no-cloning theorem is stated and discussed. For quantum cryptography the author refers to Chapter 10 of the first volume. Quantum teleportation is described pointing at the necessity of classical communication for to proceed. The mode of action of quantum computers is described introducing the concepts of a quantum register and qubit gates. Advantages of quantum versus classical information processing are explained. The algorithms of Deutsch, Grover, and Shor are exemplified before, eventually, the difficulties in realizing the construction of quantum computers, and the present state of technology are considered. The old question whether quantum mechanics is complete is the topic of Chapter 27. The Kochen-Specker Theorem stating the impossibility that all properties of a quantum system are predetermined is stated and made plausible by colorings in simple cases. So a completion with such request is excluded. It is noted that the question how far contextuality may hold true is open. How quantum non-locality can be proved by experiments with GHZ-states is shown. How to understand reality without contextuality and locality? This, including A. Leggett's vain attempt, is the final discussion of this chapter. Chapter 28 gives an overview on interpretations of quantum mechanics. Since many features of quantum theory have no classical analogues comparisons with everyday experience do not exist. For people who grew up scientifically with quantum mechanics such phenomena became natural but it is hard to explain them. Problems of this kind are discussed before a number of selected interpretations are described. There are several manifestations collected in the term Copenhagen interpretation. The origin going back to N. Bohr and W. Heisenberg is called minimal interpretation. Its elaboration by P. A. M. Dirac and J. v. Neumenn is called standard interpretation. It includes the description of measurements introducing the concept collapse of the wave function. The ensemble interpretation arises if the proposals of the theory are restricted to ensembles instead to individual quantum objects. Later in 1952 D. Bohm created Bohm's interpretation which, in a sense, omits the collapse considering possible trajectories of individual particles piloted by the wave function. The many worlds interpretation does this by the assumption that a measurement causes a splitting of the world into as many worlds completely separated one from another as outcomes are possible such that in each world another outcome is realized. So, the universal wave function does not collapse and since no communication from one of these words to another is possible the 1957 assumption by J. A. Wheeler and H. Everett cannot get falsified. Griffiths' 1984 consistent-histories interpretation is mentioned. So called collapse theories try to understand disentanglement and delocalization adding non-linear or stochastic terms to the Schrödinger equation. Eventually, under the title `other interpretations,' the inclusion of consciousness into physical considerations is considered. This goes back to J. v. Neumann who assumed that the state reduction after a measurement is caused by the conscious of the experimenter. As shown by `Wigner's friend' this contradicts the objectivity of the wave function. A modern form is the many-minds interpretation. In the conclusions it is said that at present we do not know how a final interpretation will look like. Anyway, it is fascinating how well quantum mechanics works and we are in suspense about future developments. This book continues the excellent introduction to quantum mechanics of the first volume, Chapters 1--14 [loc. cit.] suited for beginners to get first insights which may be deepened reading the appendices. The two volumes can be best recommended generally and especially for self studies.