Reasoning in quantum theory. Sharp and unsharp quantum logics. (Q1887210)

The twenties and thirties of the last century were very exciting in physics and mathematics as well as in mathematical logic. There appeared a new physics, which we call today quantum physics, where the traditional Newton laws fail. This was confirmed by measurements, and measurements are intimately connected with mathematical statistics and statistics with probability theory. Axiomatics of probability theory was formulated by Kolmogorov in 1933, but it was soon observed that quantum mechanical events do not satisfy the Kolmogorov axioms as it follows e.g. from the famous Heisenberg uncertainty principle. In 1920, Łukasiewicz published a two-page article on three-valued logic. Today this many-valued logic was developed into nowadays fuzzy logic. All these three inspirations, quantum physics, probability theory and many-valued logics are the background of the present monograph written by prominent experts in quantum theories, quantum logics and mathematical logic. The aim of the book is to present various logical investigations of quantum phenomena, including the last hit, quantum computation. The book consists of two parts, first one having 7 chapters and the second one having 10 chapters. Chapter 1 starts with the celebrated book by \textit{J. von Neumann} [Mathematische Grundlagen der Quantummechanik). Berlin: Springer (1932; Zbl 0005.09104)] where the author proposed an axiomatic version of (sharp) quantum theory (QT). The interpretation given there is often referred to as orthodox quantum theory, where the basic concepts are physical system, state of a physical system, observable, and event. This orthodox QT culminates in the Birkhoff-von Neumann interpretation of the lattice \({\mathcal C}(H)\) of all closed subspaces of a Hilbert space \(H\). This structure is more general than that of a Boolean algebra, but more special than orthomodular posets or orthomodular lattices considered nowadays. Therefore, this chapter gives the elements of these structures. Finally, quantum logics is considered, as an algebraic structure on quantum events with the main accent to the Hilbert space quantum formalism. Chapter 2 develops the operational approach to statistical theories and introduces the main concepts of QT in this framework which is independent of the Hilbert space formalism. On this base, orthodox QT can be considered as a particular model of this more general setup. The base is given by Mackey's state-observable probability system and by Gudder's formulation of an event-state system. Chapter 3 guides the reader back to a Hilbert space. The event structure of \({\mathcal C}(H)\) is studied in more detail as a special case of orthomodular lattices where states are described by Gleason's theorem. It is shown how \({\mathcal C}(H)\) can be characterized among orthomodular lattices, which was done by \textit{H. P. Solèr} [Commun. Algebra 23, No. 1, 219--243 (1995; Zbl 0827.46019)]. Chapter 4 shows how fuzziness can be recognized in a natural manner in Hilbert space QT. To that end one has to consider each Hermitian operator \(F\), \(0\leq F\leq 1\), as the representation of an effect occuring with probability \(\text{tr}(\rho F)\) given the state \(\rho\). These operators form a partially ordered set the structure of which may be called Brower-Zadeh poset. The extremal points of this set are the orthogonal projections usually considered to represent sharp propositions (decision effects in the nomenclature of Günter Ludwig). Effect algebras in general are introduced in Chapter 5. By examples of a truncated sum of fuzzy sets, the authors present MV-algebras and quantum MV-algebras. Chapter 6 is devoted to abstract axiomatic foundations of unsharp quantum theory. Here a very important method of construction of modular posets and, especially orthomodular posets based on pasting of finite Boolean algebras, Greechie's diagrams is presented . Chapter 7, concluding the first part, ends with explanations of different algebraic characterizations of quantum sharpness. In the second part, the main accent is put on the explanation of quantum logics as a logic. Chapter 8 starts with an orthomodular quantum logic and with a weaker orthologic. An algebraic and Kripkean realization of Hilbert event-state systems is given. Chapter 9 speaks about metalogical properties and anomalies of quantum logic. Quantum logic can be axiomatized in many ways: the Hilbert-Bernas style and the Gentzen style. The authors present, in Chapter 10, a QL-calculus in the Goldblatt style. Chapter 11 is dedicated to the metalogical intractability of orthomodularity. It is explained that the orthomodularity is not an elementary first-order property. It is still not known whether every orthomodular lattice is embeddable into a complete orthomodular lattice. Chapter 12 describes the first-order quantum logic and quantum set theories. Chapter 13 introduces partial logics. The authors start with a partial Boolean algebra. It is shown that partial classical logics are weaker than classical logic. Here a very interesting application of the Gleason theorem is given. In Chapter 14, unsharp quantum logics are studied. It is shown that they can be regarded as natural logical abstractions from the effect-state systems. Such a logic is a paraconsistent quantum logic. Chapter 15 gives further stronger examples of unsharp quantum logic called Brower-Zadeh logics (also fuzzy intuitionistic logics). There are two different forms, a weak Brower-Zadeh logic and a strong Brower-Zadeh logic. Chapter 16 extends further partial quantum logics and presents the Łukasie\-wicz quantum logic. In addition, the intuitive meaning of the corresponding quantum logic connectives in the sense of Łukasiewicz are explained. The last chapter is dedicated to a new form of unsharp quantum logic that has been naturally suggested by the theory of unsharp computation. An analogue of the classical bit is here a qubit represented as any unit vector in a Hilbert space. Quantum logical gates, quantum computational semantics are presented in details. In Conclusion, the authors summarize answers to the following questions: (a) Why quantum logics? (b) Are quantum logics helpful to solve the difficulties of QT? (c) Are quantum logics ``real logics''? (d) Does quantum logic confirm the thesis that ``logic is empirical'' ? The authors argue positively to these deep questions. The book is accomplished with a bibliography of 180 items. It is written in a very nice and fresh style trying also to show that quantum like logic can be found in other disciplines and also in the past. The authors are keeping the interest of the reader permanently on his trip through the book. The audience is supposed from mathematicians, logicians, quantum theorists, and specialists from quantum computing, both experts and students. The monograph is welcome in the quantum logic community, and it surely enriches the literature on quantum structures from this important logical point of view.