Overlapping Pfaffians (Q1918880)

If \(a(i,j)\) \((1\leq i,j\leq 2n)\) are the entries of an antisymmetric matrix \(M\), then the determinant of \(M\) is the square of the expression \[ P:= \sum s(i_1,i_2,\dots,i_{2n})a(i_1,i_2)a(i_3,i_4)\cdots a(i_{2n-1},i_{2n}), \] where \(s(i_1,i_2,\dots,i_{2n})\) is the sign of the permutation taking \(1,2,\dots,2n\) into \(i_1,i_2,\dots,i_{2n}\). \(P\) is known as the Pfaffian of \(A\). In general, for any function \(f(x,y)\) defined on ordered pairs from a possibly infinite set \(X\), satisfying \[ f(x,y)=-f(y,x)\quad\text{for } x,y\in X, \] the Pfaffian \(f(x)\) is defined for arbitrary words \({\mathbf x}=(x_1,x_2,\dots,x_{2n})\) of even length \(2n\) by \[ f(x_1,x_2,\dots,x_{2n}):=\sum s(x_1,x_2,\dots,x_{2n},y_1,y_2,\dots,y_{2n})f(y_1,y_2)f(y_3,y_4)\cdots f(y_{2n-1},y_{2n}), \] where the sum is taken over all \((2n-1)!!\) ways to write \(\{x_1,x_2,\dots,x_{2n}\}\) as a union of pairs \(\{y_1,y_2\}\cup\cdots\cup\{y_{2n-1},y_{2n}\}\), and where \(s(x_1,\dots,x_{2n},y_1,\dots,y_{2n})\) is the sign of the permutation that takes \(x_1,\dots,x_{2n}\) into \(y_1,\dots,y_{2n}\). From now on, we write \(F[x_1x_2\cdots x_{2n}]\) instead of \(F(x_1,x_2,\dots,x_{2n})\). If \(\alpha\) is a word, we write \(f[\alpha]\). The definition can then the abbreviated as \[ f[\alpha]=\sum_{\mu\in M(\alpha)}s(\alpha,\mu)\prod f[\mu], \] where \(M(\alpha)\) is the set of perfect matchings of \(\alpha\) represented as words \(y_1\cdots y_2\) in some canonical way, and \(\prod f[y_1\cdots y_{2n}]=f[y_1y_2]\cdots f[y_{2n-1}y_{2n}]\). The author extends the sign function \(s\) to \(s(\alpha,\beta)\) for arbitrary words \(\alpha,\beta\in X^*\) as follows. If either \(\alpha\) or \(\beta\) has a repeated letter or if \(\beta\) contains a letter not in \(\alpha\), then \(s(\alpha,\beta)=0\). Otherwise \(s(\alpha,\beta)\) is the sign of the permutation that takes \(\alpha\) into the words \(\beta(\alpha\backslash\beta)\), where \(\alpha\backslash\beta\) is the word that remains when the elements of \(\beta\) are removed from \(\alpha\). Using this notation and a correspondence between perfect matchings of a set, a proof is given of the following identity, due to \textit{H. W. L. Tanner} [A theorem relating to Pfaffians, Messenger of Mathematics 8, 56-59 (1878)], \[ f[\alpha]f[\alpha\beta]= \sum_y s(\beta,xy)f[\alpha xy]f[\alpha\beta\backslash xy],\quad\text{for all } x\in \beta. \] Several applications of this formula are treated. Some of these lead to new proofs of old identities for determinants. The final application leads to a proof and a generalization of a result for which special proofs were given by \textit{D. Laksov}, \textit{A. Lascoux} and \textit{A. Thorup} [Acta Mathematica 162, No. 3/4, 143-199 (1989; Zbl 0695.14023)] and by \textit{J. R. Stembridge} [Adv. Math. 83, No. 1, 96-113 (1990; Zbl 0790.05007)]. Let \(g\) be the skew-symmetric Blaschke operator \[ g[xy]:={x-y\over 1-xy}. \] Then \[ g[x_1x_2\cdots x_n]=\prod_{1\leq i< j\leq n}{x_i-x_j\over 1-x_ix_j},\quad n\text{ even}. \] The new proof follows from the following theorem. The identity \[ f[x_1\cdots x_n]=\prod_{1\leq i<j\leq n}f[x_ix_j] \] holds for all even \(n\) if and only if it holds for \(n=4\). The paper ends with a section on the history of Pfaffians.