Why is math so hard for some children? The nature and origins of mathematical learning difficulties and disabilities. With a forword by Robert Siegler (Q2905511)

This volume comprises a comprehensive and multidisciplinary treatment of current research on mathematical learning disabilities. Empirical, theoretical, methodological, and pedagogical perspectives on this rapidly evolving area are discussed, drawing on a wide range of fields including cognitive and developmental psychology, educational psychology, neuropsychology, cognitive neuroscience, behavior genetics, and special education. Topics to be discussed include: issues of clarification and definition, the prevalence of mathematical learning disabilities, the role of language in mathematical learning, math anxiety, motivation, gender, cultural influences, effective instructional interventions.NEWLINENEWLINEThis volume is the first book that has brought together a wide variety of perspectives and data on the phenomenon.NEWLINENEWLINEThe content of the book is divided into topical parts which are subdivided into sections:NEWLINENEWLINEPart I:NEWLINENEWLINESection 1: Characterizing learning disabilities in mathematicsNEWLINENEWLINEIn Chapter 1, Gersten and colleagues discuss historical and contemporary perspectives on mathematical learning disability (MLD). The authors also illustrate the paucity of research on MLD as compared with the larger research literature to the topic of reading disability, but they also underscore the rapid gains made in the MLD field made during the past decade.NEWLINENEWLINEChapter 2 (by Mazzocco) summarizes the challenge to define mathematical learning disabilities (MLD) and illustrates the diversity of contemporary definitions by reviewing some of the criteria used across research studies to classify a child as having MLD. Although MLD has a genetic basis, no clear biological marker has been identified.NEWLINENEWLINEMazzocco discusses the terminology of the phenomenon of MLD as well as the phenomenon of mathematical difficulties represented as a broader construct which includes children with below average to low average performance on tests of math achievement. The author illustrates the overlap and the barriers of these booth groups.NEWLINENEWLINEIn Chapter 3, Shalev illustrates one of the most significant practical outcomes of an inconsistently used definition of MLD. She describes how prevalence rates reported for MLD vary as a function of the definition used to classify children as having MLD. Through the review of prevalence studies of nations across the globe (Slovakia, United States, Germany, England, Israel, India, Greece and Belgium) Shalev provides up-to-date information on the prevalence of MLD. She concludes that current estimates of the prevalence of dyscalculia are predicated on epidemiological studies, which screen sufficiently large and representative populations using standard methodologies and validates test batteries, but the large differences in prevalence may depend on the different arithmetic tests which are used in the studies.NEWLINENEWLINEFinally, Shalev criticizes traditional definitions of dyscalculia which are based on criteria such as IQ score discrepancy and low achievement and points out that bona fide epidemiological studies requires multiple assessments, at appropriate time intervals, in order to provide accurate estimates for the prevalence of dyscalculia.NEWLINENEWLINESection II: Cognitive and information processing featuresNEWLINENEWLINEIn Chapter 4, Butterworth and Reigosa explicate that domain-general explanations of the deficits exhibited by children with MLD lack strong empirical evidence. They contend that MLD arise from deficits in a domain-specific brain system specialized for detecting and comparing small numerosities (e.g., several dots or objects). They suggest that this system functions as part of a ``starter kit'' for the subsequent understanding of numbers and arithmetic.NEWLINENEWLINEIn Chapter 5, Geary and colleagues examine cognitive mechanisms that may be responsible for the use of developmentally immature problem solving-strategies and procedures by children with MLD. They conclude that poor outcomes are primarily attributable to deficient working memory and long-term memory systems, along with a delayed understanding of certain arithmetic concepts. Furthermore, deficits in phonological skills and inhibitory mechanisms may contribute to difficulties in recalling arithmetic facts.NEWLINENEWLINEIn Chapter 6, Jordan examines relationships between mathematical difficulties (MD) and reading disabilities (RD). In contrast to Geary's earlier findings that problems with number and fact retrieval may be related to a phonological processing difficulty, Jordan's own research shows that when required to retrieve arithmetic facts rapidly, children with RD perform better than do children with MD and those with co-morbid disabilities (MD\, +\, RD).NEWLINENEWLINEIn Chapter 7, Hecht and colleagues explain the reasons why children frequently experience difficulties when working with fractions. These authors conclude that these difficulties may be largely attributable to the inadequate conceptual understanding of fraction symbols.NEWLINENEWLINEIn the commentary on the chapters in this section, Swanson points put that although some consensus exists that children with MLD experience difficulties in accessing numerical information accurately and efficiently, there is disagreement concerning the primary cognitive mechanisms that underlie math disabilities. The author concludes that the construct of MLD and the criteria of diagnosis continue to differ enormously across studies, research in this field ought to be viewed as being in its early stages.NEWLINENEWLINEPart II:NEWLINENEWLINESection III: Neuropsychological factorsNEWLINENEWLINESection III describes cognitive mechanisms and specific aspects of brain function or dysfunction that are proposed to underlie mathematical learning disabilities (MLD).NEWLINENEWLINEIn Chapter 8, Donlan's approach to neuropsychological studies of MLD is to study a disorder for which the role of brain function is quite well understood: specific language impairment (SLI). Donlan demonstrates that children with SLI who exhibit deficits in the comprehension, production, or use of language also display deficits in select aspects of mathematics, such as calculation procedures and understanding number words.NEWLINENEWLINEIn Chapter 9, Mazzocco, Murphy, and McCloskey adopt a different neuropsychological approach to understanding pathways to MLD. Their research methodology involves studying specific populations of children whose known genetic disorders lead to deficits in the cognitive mechanisms that are proposed to underlie MLD, such as working memory, attention, or retrieval skills.NEWLINENEWLINEIn Chapter 10, Barnes, Fletcher, and Ewing-Cobbs adopt this approach to study children with known aberrant brain development associated with spina bifida and illustrate the relationship between specificity in brain dysfunction and mathematical disabilities.NEWLINENEWLINEIn Chapter 11, Zentall focuses on the arithmetic difficulties experienced by children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Because about one-third of children with ADHD are identified as having MLD and about one-fourth of children with MLD are also diagnosed as having MLD, Zentall distinguishes whether MLD is a direct or indirect consequence of other disorders that can affect learning more generally, such as ADHD. The author discusses why MLD in children with ADHD is not merely a symptom of ADHD.NEWLINENEWLINEIn Chapter 12, Zamarian and colleagues review studies of persons whose initially intact mathematical abilities are interrupted by brain injury. Studies of individuals who experience traumatic brain injury during childhood informs us of the developmental aspects of brain function associated which mathematics. In her Commentary on Section III, Bull underscores that the interplay across domains must be considered in striving to understand the developmental of mathematical cognition during childhood.NEWLINENEWLINESection IV: Neurobiological and genetic substratesNEWLINENEWLINEIn Chapter 13, Simon and Rivera describe the cognitive neuro-scientific approach to the study of mathematical thinking, focusing particularly on the use of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and event-related potentials (ERP). The authors explain the advantages of using such methods as compared with the assessment of persons with actual brain damage or the study of simulated brain damage in healthy adults.NEWLINENEWLINEIn Chapter 14, Petrill and Plomin describe recent research on both the genetic and environmental origins of mathematical learning and MLD including the meaning of concepts such as heritability, shared family environment, and non-shared environment. Finally, the point out that knowledge of genetic effects on variation in math ability may eventually make it possible to assess a child's risk of developing MLD before they begin to arise.NEWLINENEWLINEPart III:NEWLINENEWLINESection V: Additional influences on math difficultiesNEWLINENEWLINEA variety of factors are discussed which can moderate if not mediate the successful learning of mathematical concepts and skills, including math anxiety, motivation, gender, and cultural factors.NEWLINENEWLINEChapter 15, Ashcraft, Krause, and Hopko investigate the construct of math anxiety. In their review of the relevant research they point out that that we still know little about the antecedents of math anxiety, and that our limited knowledge in this regard constrains efforts to improve of our understanding of this problem. Based on their own studies, Ashcraft and colleagues estimate that approximately 17\% of the population can be classified as high in math anxiety. The authors discuss the influence of math anxiety on math achievement.NEWLINENEWLINEIn Chapter 16, Royer and Walles examine the impact of gender, ethnicity, and motivation on math performance. The authors then review the shifting patterns in math-related motivational disposition and self-esteem as children progress in school, finding not only that these changes are complex but also that the degree of change in these patterns varies as a function of both gender and ethnicity.NEWLINENEWLINEIn the Commentary of Part II, Section IV, Ginsburg and Pappas debate aspects of the contributions and limitations of research providing the foundations for intervention. These authors discuss the questions ``What should we teach?'' and ``How should we teach?'' and at last concur that instructional principles can should guide curriculum development but not determine it.