Functions, functional relations, and the laws of continuity in Euler (Q1578260)

This article is difficult to read: the reviewer finds that no clear idea of a function or function equation is stated, and no examples are given to illuminate the statements made about them; reviewer feels that the ideas of G-continuity or L-continuity are not clearly stated. The contemporary view of functions seems to be, from d'Alembert and from Euler, that a function was defined by a formula, such as \(y = \sqrt{a^2-x^2}\). Different formulae gave different functions. Power series could define functions. Functions could also be defined by integrals; and they could be given in some mysterious ways, as in the quote from Euler on page 116, where ``functions can often not be exhibited explicitly: a function of \(z\) of this type is \(Z\) if it is defined by an equation such as \[ Z^5 = azzZ^3 -bz^4Z^2 +cz^3Z -1. \] Indeed, although this equation cannot be solved, it is known that \(Z\) is equal to an expression composed of the variable \(z\) and constants and, therefore, \(Z\) is a certain function of \(z\).'' This is dated 1748. Ruffini showed the impossibility of finding a general formula for an algebraic solution for \(Z\) in terms of \(z\) at the turn of the century, around 1800, and the elliptic function solution had to await Legendre, Abel, Jacobi, and Klein. What Euler meant by the word ``known'' is not made clear. [On p. 110, the variable \(x\) appears as a positive integer in a summation in the definition of a function \(S\), and then as a real variable in a differentiation of \(S\) in the next formula.] The virtue of reading the masters is that, since they are writing about new subjects, they must explain in simple language; the difficulty of reading the masters is that they are often ignorant: they do not know everything concerning what they are writing about. And as the author remarks, the language they used has changed its meaning as others develop new mathematics. It is interesting that Euler's presentations of systematic integration and of the elements of functions of two variables persist to this day, despite their shortcomings (the one stops before the interesting functions, the other does not present \textsl{the} derivative): the presentations are simple and understandable, wonderful for their time, but \textsl{now} appear short-sighted and are certainly not free from error. There are about 40 references listed. Several key articles, and priority and use of analytic functions to solve fluid flow problems using the \textsl{so-called} Cauchy-Riemann equations, are not given for d'Alembert: Essai d'une nouvelle théorie de la résistance des fluides, Paris: David l'ainé, 1752. In a much quoted passage on pp. 60-70 d'Alembert derives the Cauchy-Riemann equations for a function of a complex variable [the velocity potential] and lays bare the foundation for the application of complex function theory in plane fluid mechanics. Euler himself quotes this reference in \textsl{Continuation des recherches sur la théorie du mouvement des fluides}, Histoire et Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences et Belles-lettres de Berlin pour 1755, [13] (1757), 316-361, p. 356: ``La méthode fort ingenieuse de M. d'Alembert''. The articles in d'Alembert's \textsl{Opuscules} raise serious questions about functions: questions of differentiability of functions and of their existence, including the ``accepted'' solution of the wave equation by Euler. The plucked string with its sharp point, where there is no first derivative, occasioned much debate. D'Alembert would not allow these ``discontinuous functions'' as solutions of the wave equation, since such ``solutions'' did not have a first derivative at certain points, let alone a second derivative. This ``conversation'' about functions between Clairaut, Daniel Bernoulli, Leonhard Euler and d'Alembert lasted until their deaths: d'Alembert returned to it for some final remarks in his published and unpublished \textsl{Opuscules mathématiques}. No hint of this appears on pp. 127-129 where the wave equation and complex functions are discussed.