The numerical duplication of a numerical semigroup.
Let \(S\) be a numerical semigroup, that is, a submonoid of \((\mathbb N,+)\) with finite complement in \(\mathbb N\) (the set of nonnegative integers). The cardinality of the set \(\mathbb N\setminus S\) is known as the genus of \(S\), \(g(S)\). The largest integer not in \(S\) is its Frobenius number, denoted by \(f(S)\). An integer \(z\) is a pseudo-Frobenius number of \(S\) if \(z+(S\setminus\{0\})\subset S\). The cardinality of the set of pseudo-Frobenius numbers is known as the type of \(S\), \(t(S)\). The semigroup \(S/2=\{x\in\mathbb N\mid 2x\in S\}\) is again a numerical semigroup. Let \(E\) be a set of integers. Then \(E\) is a relative ideal of \(S\) if \(S+E\subseteq E\) and there exists \(s\in S\) such that \(s+E\subseteq S\). A relative ideal \(E\) of \(S\) is said to be an ideal if \(E\subseteq S\). The sets \(M(S)=S\setminus\{0\}\) and \(C(S)=\mathbb N\cap [f(S)+1,\infty)\) are ideals of \(S\), called the maximal ideal and the conductor of \(S\), respectively. Another relevant ideal is the standard canonical ideal \(K(S)=\{x\in\mathbb Z\mid f(S)-x\not\in S\}\). A numerical semigroup \(S\) is symmetric if \(g(S)=(f(S)+1)/2\), and it is almost symmetric if \(g(S)=(f(S)+t(S))/2\) (minimum number of gaps for fixed Frobenius number and minimum number of gaps for fixed type and Frobenius number, respectively). Every symmetric numerical semigroup has type one, and thus it is almost symmetric. These definitions can be characterized in terms of the standard canonical ideal: \(S\) is symmetric if and only if \(K(S)=S\), while the almost symmetry is equivalent to \(K(S)+M(S)\subseteq M(S)\). Let \(S\) be a numerical semigroup and let \(E\) be an ideal of \(S\). For every odd integer \(b\in S\), the authors define the numerical duplication of \(S\) with respect to \(E\) and \(b\) as \(S\bowtie^bE=2\times S\cup (2\times E+b)\) (where \(2\times X\) are the doubles of the elements of \(X\)). It follows that \((S\bowtie^bE)/2=S\). One of the authors and other authors proved previously that \(S\bowtie^bE\) is symmetric if and only \(E\) is a canonical ideal of \(S\) (a translation of the standard canonical ideal of \(S\)). Formulas for the Frobenius number, genus, standard canonical ideal and type of \(S\bowtie^bE\) are provided (actually the type does not depend of \(b\)). Then the authors characterize those duplications that are almost symmetric, and for them a simpler formula of the type is derived. Several examples illustrate the results obtained. Duplication also allows to construct non-Weierstrass numerical semigroups.
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